Processes and devices for measuring stresses within a transparent body for electromagnetic waves

ABSTRACT

The principle of polarization of scattered light is applied to determine the principal stresses in the interior of a model. On the basis of the theorem which states that &#39;&#39;&#39;&#39;a series of birefringent elements is equivalent to a unique birefringent, followed by a medium endowed with light-rotating power,&#39;&#39;&#39;&#39; it is shown that, if the characteristics of a series of birefringent elements are known, it is possible to find the characteristics of an interior section of a model. The desired characteristics are obtained by measuring the A.C. component of the signal from a photomultiplier on which the light to be studied, falls, the light having previously passed through an analyzer rotating at a constant speed about the axis of observation. This new method of measurement is applied to both two- and three-dimensional photoelastic models.

tn stsestata y [72] Inventors Andre Malakolt, Seine;

Eliane Guillemet, Asnieres, Seine, both of, France [21] Appl. No. 767,600

[22] Filed Aug. 29, 1968 [45] Patented June 29, 1971 [73] Assignee Etat Francais (French State) represented by the Minister of the Armies Ministerial Delegation for Armament Central Direction of Manufactures and Navy Arms, Technical Service for Manufactures and Navy, Paris, France [32] Priority Nov. 12, I963 [33] France Continuation-impart of application Ser. No. 410,208, Nov. 10, 1964, now abandoned.

[S4] PROCESSES AND DEVICES FOR MEASURING STRESSES WITHIN A TRANSPARENT BODY FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 6 Claims, 28 Drawing Figs.

[521 US. Cl 356/33, 73/88, 350/149, 356/1 14. 250/225 [51] lnt.Cl ..(;0lb 11/18. GOln 21/44 [50] Field of Search 356/114- Primary Examiner--Ronald L. Wibert Assistant Examiner-J. Rothenberg Attorney-Kurt Kelman ABSTRACT: The principle of polarization of scattered light is applied to determine the principal stresses in the interior of a model. On the basis of the theorem which states that a series of birefringent elements is equivalent to a unique birefringent, followed by a medium endowed with light-rotating power," it is shown that, if the characteristics of a series of birefringent elements are known, it is possible to find the characteristics of an interior section of a model. The desired characteristics are obtained by measuring the AC. component of the signal from a photomultiplier on which the light to be studied, falls, the light having previously passed through an analyzer rotating at a constant speed about the axis of observation. This new method of measurement is applied to both twoand threedimensional photoelastic models.

PATENTEU JUH29 I971 SHEET 5 UF 9 PATENTEH JUN29 Ian 3,589,817 2 SHEET 8 OF 9 PATENTED JUHZS 19m SHEET 9 OF 9 PROCESSES AND DEVICES FOR MEASURING STRESSES WITHIN A TRANSPARENT BODY FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES REFERENCE TO COPENDING APPLICATION This invention is a continuation-in-part of our application Ser. No. 4l0,208, filed Nov. 10, 1964, and now abandoned entitled Process and Devices for Measuring Stresses Within a Transparent Body for Electromagnetic Waves."

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The use of scattered-light principles for stress analysis has long been known in the art. The appearance of interference fringes in the light scattered from a polarized beam passing through a stresses photoelastic model has been proven by nu merous investigations. R. Weller in Three-Dimensional Photoelasticity Using Scattered Light, Journal of Applied Physics,Vol. 12, Aug. I941, first presented the technique of determining stresses in a system by using a beam of polarized light which has been collimated and passed through a slit onto a model. The light emerging from the model contained interference fringes from which the stresses could be determined by measuring the spacing of'thc fringes. Later work further refined and developed this concept. H. T. Jessop in The Scat tered Light Method of Exploration of Stresses in Two and Three Dimensional Models, Brit. Journal of Appl Phys, Vol. 2, .Rept. 1951, further refined this concept and provided an improved light source and improved measuring means whereby higher degrees of accuracy were obtainable.

The same scattered-light photoelastic polariscope method was later refined to include an immersion tank capable of moving the model in three-dimension space (Y.F. Cheng, Scattered Light Photoelastic Polariscope for Three Dimensional Stress Analysis Revue ofSci. lnst.,Vol. 35, No. 8, Aug. I964). This study also included a technique of observing simultaneously the intensities of the scattered light along two directions of observation making an angle of 45 in a plane normal to the beam.

However, all the prior art schemes employed polarized light as the impinging light source. Furthermore, these schemes all made measurements on the fringe patterns which were observed. These were basically subjective measurements on scalar intensities. None of the prior art methods made use of the form of the polarized light emerging from the model and none were capable of providing objective measurements which could be automated and computerized.

In this invention, the incoming light in nonpoiarized. Despite this departure from prior art schemes, this invention can still provide complete stress analysis. This is accomplished by making use of the form of light which emerges from the model. Based on the properties of elliptically polarized scattered light represented by Poincare's sphere, there can be determined the relations between the axes and the phase difference of the initial light vibration and the emergent one after transmission through a series of birefringent elements.

Although polarization analyzers are known in the art, e.g. US. Pat. No. 3,183,763 to Koestler, Polarization Analyzers for Optical Systems Employing Polarized Light," these devices are not used in the instant invention. As hereinafter described, the invention measures directly the light shape and its properties.

The basic idea of this invention is to use scattering of non polarized incident light to produce the equivalent of a movable internal source of polarized light. Measurement of the form of light at the exit of this scattered light at 90 from the main incident beam gives all the available photoelastic information about the stress pattern along the path of this scattered beam. One then has to perform algebraic calculation on the group of forms of polarized light. As such, this invention teaches an entirely objective method supplying all needed data in a form suitable for automatic evaluation of stresses, heretofore not possible in the prior art.

In order that the nature and the scope of the present invention be well understood, there will be first described the theoretical basis on which the invention rests and then there will be described nonlimiting embodiments of the invention.

For this purpose, reference will be made to the annexed drawings in which:

FIG. 1 represents a rectilinear vibration with respect to two rectangular axes.

FIG. 2 represents the variation of the flattening and of the orientation of the ellipse resulting from the composition of two vibrations directed along the axes ofa birefringent body.

FIG. 3 represents a geometrical construction for obtaining the loci of the flattening constant r= a constant and the orientation angle 0= a constant.

FIG. 4 shows Poincares sphere as applied to elliptically polarized light.

FIG. 5 provides definitions for a number of angles.

FIG. 6 represents the case of a scattered-light beam with an impinging nonpolarized light beam.

FIG. 7 represents in a Cartesian coordinate system some magnitudes useful for the description.

FIG. 8 represents an elliptical luminous vibration having a and b as half axes.

FIG. 9 represents a geometrical construction used in the ex planation of the invention.

FIGS. 10, 11 and 12 represent, on the one hand, a light vibration and, on the other hand, the variation ofa magnitude linked to the flattening coefficient 'r of the ellipse of the vibration considered as a function of the angle 0 characterizing the position ofthe polarizer.

FIG. 13 represents schematically an embodiment of the present invention for studying and measuring mechanical stresses within a plane model stresses it its own plane.

FIG. 14 represents schematically a portion of the electrical circuit associated with the apparatus of FIG. 13.

FIG. 15 represents the variation of the alternating voltage in the output of the electron photomultiplier as a function of the angular position of the polarizer.

FIG. 15a represents the variation in the phase angled for the model as a function of the mechanical load placed on the model.

FIG. 16 represents two stresses N and N with respect to rectangular axes.

FIG. 17 represents a square diagram for studying stresses at point M FIG. 18 represents experimental results achieved by means of a thick annulus made of methyl Polymethacrylate submitted to tensile force.

FIG. 19 represents in a Cartesian system of coordinates a vibration, such as a light vibration.

FIG. 20 represents the case ofa partly polarized light vibra tion.

FIG. 21 represents a diagram used for describing the invention.

FIG. 22 represents schematically a series of variables used in describing the present invention.

FIG. 23 represents schematically an embodiment of the present invention, which has been used to measure the stress in a model measuring 3OX30 I20 mm. subjected to a compression force.

FIGS. 24 and 25 represent, in a system of rectangular coordinates, results obtained experimentally.

FIG. 26 represents schematically a device for controlling the DC voltage of the electron photomultiplier tube, so as to keep it constant.

FIG. 27 represents in perspective a commercial embodiment of the apparatus in accordance with features of the present invention.

The present invention may advantageously be used to measure the stresses present in a transparent model by the use of scattered light. Measurements are carried out before and after making a relative displacement between a specific point of the model and the impinging beam of light. From the variation of the state of polarization from one case to the other, it is possible to calculate, for the small volume of matter laying between the corresponding zones for the two impinging beams, the directions of the main stresses (these are considered generally the main secondary stresses) in the plane of the wave of the scattered beam, as well as the differences between the values of these main stresses. Three operations of this type, within three distinct planes intersecting one another at the point considered, are sufficient in every case for computing, at this point, the directions of the main stresses and their differences, taken two at a time.

The state of polarization may be easily determined by electronically measuring the energy transmitted through a rapidly rotating analyzer which is traversed by the light beam leaving the body perpendicularly to the impinging beam. The electronic measuring device can also be used to determine the state of polarization in the case ofa plane model.

The invention will be well understood by means of the fol-- lowing additional description in which the theoretical basis of the invention is first stated and then embodiments of the invention are described.

introduction It is known that a substance traversed by a light beam scatters the light in every direction and that when the direction of observation is perpendicular to the impinging beam, the received scattered light is totally polarized. The direction of polarization is perpendicular to the plane defined by the impinging beam and by the direction ofobservation.

This well-known scattered-light phenomenon has been applied to simple cases by using an analyzer. An object of the present invention is to provide methods and apparatus for utilizing this light-scattering phenomenon as a polarizer and, through this new technique for determining the direction of the main secondary stresses and of the phase angle at one point in a thin plate envisaged within the body to be studied. Thus, by by three measurements of the axes and of the phase angle of such thin plates intersecting along three mutually perpendicular axes at the point of interest in the model, one is able to find the direction of the main stresses, and their differences, at that point. The methods and apparatus of this invention are therefore much more general than the prior art discussed above which is limited by the fact that measurements can only be made in planes of symmetry of the model.

The use of this new technique necessitates, however, a study of the state of polarization of the outgoing light beam after it has traversed a certain thickness of the model wherein the direction of the stresses does not maintain the same orientation.

Hereinafter, there will be described a new process for determining the axes and the phase angle ofa birefringent medium, which may be followed with another active medium possessing a rotatory power. The application of this process to a plane model which has been subjected to stress confirms the validity and the precision of the process for measuring stresses in accordance with the present invention.

Theoretical Basis The theory of the present invention is based on the work of Henri Poincare as published in Theorie Mathematique de la Lumiere" Gauthier-Villars, Editor, Paris (1889). This publication contains a very full geometrical representation of a luminous vibration. Let us consider a rectilinear vibration V impinging upon a birefringent plate, the axes of which are Ox and Oy, as shown in FIG. 1. Let V=V, cosmt, where V,, is the amplitude of the vibration and w! is the frequency of the vibration. At the point ofimpingement on the plate, the light vibration may be resolved into two vibrations directed along the two perpendicular axes of the plate, let the components of the vibration along the OX axes be represented by X and the component of the vibration along the OY axis be represented by Y wherein:'

X =A cos wt Y=B cos cut with:

wherein a is the angle between the impinging vibration and one axis of the plate. These two vibrations are propagated in the plate with different speeds and, at their emergence from the plate, these vibrations may be represented by:

where 5 and n are respectively the emerging vibrations in the OX and OY direction; and and ll! are respectively the phase retardations in the OX and CY directions.

According to Poincares notation, these components of the vibration emerging from the blade are the real parts of the expressions:

The ratio B/A is generally an imaginary quantity which may be written in the form:

This ratio gives the shape and the orientation of the ellipse resulting from combining the two vibrations directed along the axes of the plate. Poincare represents the variations of this ellipse by the displacement of the imaginary magnitude U+iv, that is to say the point having 14 for abscissa and v for ordinate, as shown in FIG. 2.

If the ratio B/A is a real quantity as opposed to an imaginary quantity, the representative point Q is on the u axis and the ratio 1;/ E is a real quantity. Therefore, the vibration is rectilinear and the angle of its direction with the axis Ox is such that:

B/A =tan 9 and u=OQ. Olf the ratio B/A is a purely imaginary quantity, the representative point N is on the v axis. The components represent a phase difference of 1r/2. The vibration is represented by an ellipse whose axes are directed along x and 0y, and are in the ratio of BM =0N.

The points located above on represent right-handed vibrations and the points located below Ou represent left-handed vibrations.

Let us consider a vibration represented by point M and let us suppose that this vibration traverses a plate whose main cross sections are directed along the coordinate axes. The ratio B/A changes and becomes B/A e 1 The point M representing the new vibration will be such that OM '=0M and MOM' =4 Everything takes place as if the plane had rotated through an angle 1' about 0.

The locus of the points representing vibrations whose axes present the same orientation 6 or the same ratio of flattening 1' will now be determined. For this purpose, there is considered the quantity:

a, b, c and d being imaginary constants and t a real variable. The theorem thus obtained, which will not be derived in this specification, is the following: When varies from minus infinity to plus infinity, the point having for coordinates u and v moves along a circle."

Let us assume 6 constant, that is to say that the axes of the ellipse are fixedly oriented. When 1' varies from minus infinity to plus infinity, the representative point describes a circle intercepting the points P and P having the coordinates 0, l and minus 0,l respectively (as shown in FIG. 3).

If we now assume 1 constant, when tan 9 varies from minus infinity to plus infinity, the representative point describes a circle centered on the v axis and orthogonal to the precedent circle. If there are two ellipses N and N having a flattening ratio of'r and of l/ rwe obtain:

Therefore, if a vibration is represented by a point M (see passes through M and is orthogonal to the preceding circle and by taking 'r-=ON.

To simplify the discussion, Poincare supplemented this representation with another on a sphere which is obtained by stereograpic projection of the plane u, v, the point 0 being the contact point of the plane and of the sphere, as shown in FIG. 4. It will be recalled that the so-called sterographic projection preserves the angles.

At point M on the plane, a corresponding point m located where the straight line VM intersects the sphere. It is this point m which is taken as a point representing the vibration.

The u axis is projected according to a great circle of the sphere passing through point 0 or equator. The points of the equator represent, therefore, rectilinear vibrations.

Further, 0Q=tan 6. Therefore, the sphere has a diameter equal to l:

The angle 6 of the axes of the ellipse with respect to the coordinate axes is equal to half the longitude of point q.

Two points q and q opposed diametrically represent rectilinear vibrations of rectangular directions.

The points of the v axes are projected on a great circle perpendicular to the equator which will be called hereinafter the first meridian.

The points P and P correspond to circular vibrations being projected to the polesp and p of the first meridian.

The orientation 6 of the axes depends only upon the longitude. The loci of points such that 6 constant are the meridians passing through p and p.

The flattening r depends only upon the latitude and the locus of the points such that r= constant are parallel lines.

Let us suppose now that the light beam traverses a birefringent plate having no rotary power and introducing a phase shift 1 One of the axes of the plate corresponds, for instance, to point q and the other to point q.

The vibration at the output of the plate will be computed from the vibration at the input by a rotation of the representative point through an angle (I about the axis qq' which is an axis located in the plane of the equator.

If the light beam traverses a plate possessing a rotary power R, but having no birefringent effect, the ellipse changes its orientation but preserves its shape. Everything takes place as ifthe sphere was rotated through an angle 2R aboutpp.

Let us consider now the action of a series of birefringent plates upon a vibration. When a light beam traverses a series of birefringent plates whose axes are separated by a phase angle but which do not possess any light-rotating power, it is possible to demonstrate the following theorem: A series of birefringent plates is equivalent to a single birefringent plate followed by a medium having a light-rotating power.

Let us consider the case where two birefringent plates are positioned Seriatim, in the path of a light beam. In this case, it is possible to demonstrate the following theorem: Two birefringent plates are equivalent to a single birefringent plate followed by a medium having a light-rotating power."

Let us associate with the sphere shown in FIG. 4 a trihedron Cxyz, the axis Cz being superimposed on the line pp, the plane xy being the plane of the equator, as shown in FIG. 5. A birefringent plate corresponds, therefore, to a rotation about an axis located in the plane xy and to a light-rotating power corresponding to a rotation about Cz. It is important to note that these rotation axes are fixed in space and not tied to the sphere.

It is now necessary to pass over the sphere from a point m representing the vibration at the input, to a point m representing the vibration obtained after traversing the two birefringent elements introducing phase angles 1 and D Point m is therefore derived from point m by two successive rotations through angles 1 and D about the two axes q, and 11 in plane xy. The x axis may be taken as that of axis q,, as shown in FIG. 5. Poincare has demonstrated that these two rotations are equivalent to a single rotation of an angle 2R about the axis Cz followed by a rotation of an angle I about the axis q in the plane xy, which makes an angle 2a with Cx. Simple considerations on trihedrons demonstrate that one can pass also from point m to point m by a rotation of an angle 1 about the axis q in plane xy which makes an angle of 2 (tr-R) with axis Cx followed by a rotation 2R about Cz.

Thus, there is demonstrated the following theorem: Two birefringent plates having phase shifts of I and D respectively are equivalent to a single birefringent plate having a phase shift of l followed by a medium having a light-rotating power of 2R."

From this conclusion, we can deduce that it is always possible to pass from a point m on a sphere to another point m on the sphere by two successive rotations; one about an axis located in the plane of the equator and the other about the axis pp.

Let us consider therefore a light vibration which traverses a series of birefringent plates. At the input, the vibration is represented by a point m At the output, the vibration is represented by a point m As shown hereinbefore, a series of birefringent plates is equivalent to a single birefringent plate followed by a medium having a light-rotating power.

Let us apply the above teaching to scattered light from an impinging nonpolarized light beam.

For this purpose, let us consider FIG. 6.

An impinging nonpolarized light beam SM is observed in a perpendicular direction, i.e. MO. In M, the light scattered along MO is polarized in the direction P perpendicular to plane SMO.

At N, the output of the model, the light vibration has become elliptical and from M to N, the model may be likened to a series of birefringent plates. These blades are equivalent to a single birefringent plate D whose axes make an angle 6 with a reference direction, followed by a rotatory power R, It will be seen later how 1 9 and R are determined experimentally.

Let us move the impinging beam from SM to SM. 'I'he effect would be the same as having, in front of the entire assembly, an unknown birefringent plate I whose axes make an unknown angle 6, with the reference direction. From M to N, the assembly is equivalent to a birefringent plate D whose axes make an angle 6;, with the reference direction followed by a rotational power R There will now be established the relations existing between 0,. in. 4);. l R Hr. b and R and from this the unknown quantity 0, and 1 will be derh ed.

With respect to the light-rotating powers. only the difference R=R;,R must be taken into account. Since the reference direction can be arbitrarily chosen. it is possible to choose the reference direction such that 6 0. We will. there fore, choose as the reference the axis of the first birefringent plate measured as shown in FIG. 7.

The following equations may be written:

Rotation 4 about axis q1 inclined at an angle 26 with respect to axis ox, x rotation 4 about axis Ox rotation 1 about axis q inclined of an angle 26 with respect to axis 01, x rotation 2R about axis Oz.

The transformation matrix representing the rotation I and b, is as follows:

1 0 cos 26 sin 20 0 A 0 cos sin w sin 20 cos 20 0 0 sin cos w 0 0 l 1 0 0 cos 20 sin 20 0 0 cos e sin p sin 29; cos 26 0 0 sin c1 cos (p 0 0 1 The transformation matrix representing the rotation 1 and 2R is as follows:

cos 2R sin 2R 0 cos 26; sin 20 0 8: sin 2R cos 2R 0 sin 2B cos 26 0 1 0 0 cos 26 sin 20 0 0 cos e3 sin o; sin 20 cos 26 0 0 sin (.0 cos c3 0 0 1 It is, of course, necessary that A =B.

Thus, when the products are made, it is found that:

l iil a =1sin 29,(1cos a =sin 26, cos 29 (1cos o a =sin 26 sin e a sin 29 cos 20 (lcos cos t +sin 29 sin (p SID. e2

a22=[1cos 2?;(1-005 0 cos t cos 20 sin o1 sin a -cos 29 sin (,0; cos cos c1 sin ([72 a =sin 20, cos 20 (1cos (p sin -sin 26 sin w 005 (p a =[1cos 20 (1cos sin -l-cos 20 sin o cos a =cos 29; sin m sin +cos ga cos w =l nl b =cos 2 R [1-sin 2.9;(1-cos )]-Sil1 2 R sin 26; cos 29 (1cos 03) b 2=cos 2 R sin cos 29 (1-cos )sin 2 R [l-cos 29 (1cos )1 b, =cos 2 R sin 26 sin w-Sin 2 R cos 29 sin p b =sin 2 R [1sin 26 (1cos )]+cos 2 R sin 20;; cos 20 (1cos b =sin 2 R sin 20 cos 20 (1cos s03)+c0s 2 R [1cos 203(1cos 0] b =sin 2 R sin 26 sin cos 2 R cos 20 sin o3 b sin 20 sin (p 1732 033 W3 sin (p b; =cos (p From the equalities:

(l 13 1:; (123 2a l liii iiil 9. and I are derived without intervention of the light rotating power. In effect. the following expressions are obtained:

sin i sin ed cos 2(0 -0,) cos 281+CO5 P2 cos ca It appears therefore that it is sufficient to measure Q 6 CD and 6 to determine 1 and 9,.

Determination ofthe Axes and of the Phase Angles as=a cos wt y=b cos (wt- Let us determine the light intensity transmitted by an analyzer inclined at an angle a with respect to the axes OX.

The analyzer transmits a vibration which is the summation of the components of the vibrations in the x and y directions.

' Let:

a cos (1 cos wt-l-b sin 0: cos (wt-g).

The intensity or energy transmitted by the analyzer is equal to the square of the amplitude of this vibration. Thus:

By introducing a coefficient of flattening r of the ellipse defined as 1'=b/a, we obtain:

,2 1+T2 cos 2a] Note that when a birefringent plate receives a rectilinear vibration of constant amplitude but of variable orientation, the flattening T of the ellipse at the output of the plate changes, but the quantity a -l-b remains constant.

E cos 2::

Measure of the energy Consider the situation where the light energy E, given by the above equation, is received by an electron photomultiplier and transformed into an electrical current. The potential dif ference set up by this current may be measured at the terminals ofa resistance.

Let the analyzer rotate rapidly, the voltage in the output of the electron photomultiplier will be:

resulting from the superposition of a constant voltage:

and a sinusoidal voltage:

wants it" a DC voltmeter and an AC voltmeter are connected in cos 2a) parallel at the output ofsaid electron photomultiplier, the first will indicate the constant output voltage component and the second the r.m.s. value of the alternating component of the output voltage, which is proportional to the flattening coefficient r ofthe ellipse.

Determination of the Axes Let us consider now. by reference to Poincares plane representation, a birefringent plate having the axes 0.x and y (see FlGv 9) and introducing a phase shift 1 Let us suppose that this plate receives a rectilinear light vibration the orientation of which is varied with respect to the said axes.

Let us look for the positions of the polarizer such that for the impinging rectilinear vibration, the output from the plate will comprise elliptical vibrations having the same coefficient of flattening.

The elliptical vibrations are represented by points MMMiMt (see FIG. 9) which are the points ofintersectiort of the two circles corresponding to the same flattening with the straight lines ylx=tan I The impinging rectilinean vibrations-are, therefore, represented by points QQ'Q,Q

It is immediately noted that:

To 65?:621'4 0.1 '=0P==1 that is to say:

tan 9x tan 9=l The vibrations Q and Q are therefore symmetrical with respect to a direction at 45 from the axes of the birefringent plate.

It is also noted that:

that is:

tan 9= tan 9,

The vibrations Q and 0,, Q' and Q are therefore symmetrical with respect to the axes of the birefringent plate.

Summing up, then, two rectilinear vibrations giving rise to elliptical vibrations having the same flattening coefficient are symmetrical with respect to the axes of a birefringent plate or with respect to a direction at 45 from these axes.

The method for determining the axes of a birefringent plate comprises, therefore, to looking for two orientations of the polarizer which give, in the output, two ellipses having the same coefficient offlattening.

The result is obtained by means of a slow rotation of the polarizer during which rotation a search is made for two positions for which the r.m.s. value of the output voltage is the same.

In the case of a model studied with scattered light, the model itself comprises the polarizer and will be rotated about the point of interest. This will, of course, cause a rotation of the direction of the axes, with respect to the fixed direction of polarization.

It is particularly important to note that it is thus possible to find directly the axes of the birefringent plate placed in front of a medium having a light-rotating power.

Determination ofthe Phase Angle of the Birefringent Body Let 9 be the angle of the incident vibration V with respect to the axes Ox and o of a birefringent plate introducing a phase shift D (see FIG. 10).

With respect to axes Ox and Oy, the equation of the ellipse at the output of the birefringent plate is;

The coefficient of flattening r is linked to the angle 6 and to the phase angle 1 by the equation:

= 1 sin 29 sin p The r.m.s. value of the voltage:

read on an AC voltmeter is therefore proportional to:

M1 -sin 2 in C0. Let us study as a function of the angle 9 the curve:

=v 1flin a20 sin 1 which gives the variation of the quantity The table of the variation of y as a function of 1 is given below:

TABLE I 1 0 (sin pfi y 1 I Pl seas Imp] R 4 sin p 4 sin p The shape of the curve of variation is given in FIG. 11.

Whatever the phase angle 1 may be, the radius of curvature of the curve is always smaller at the minimum (9 1:74) than at the maximum (9 0).

In the casein which l w/2, there is obtained:

and the representative curve is that of FIG. 12.

From table I and from the curves of FIGS. 11 and 12, one may compute:

ymini Z cos I pl 210-0 The principle of the measuring process is therefore as follows:

After determining the axes according to the method previously described, the direction of the impinging vibration is placed successively at an angle of 45 on these axes and to coincide with one of these axes. The ratio of the two r.m.s. voltages V gives the absolute value of the cosine of the phase angle, the DC voltage having been maintained constant.

Application of the Process to the Study and Measurements of Mechanical Stresses in a Plane Model L, is a lens P is a polarizer M is a model to be studied A is a rotating analyzer C is an electron photomultiplier.

The analyzer is set into rotation by means of a rotating motor which rotates at a speed of about 2,800 r.p.m.

To avoid a parasitic stroboscopic effect, the light source is fed with a direct current by means of a rheostat. This ensures that the light flux remains constant.

The electron photomultiplier used is an electron tube RCA 5819 fed by a voltage of 1,000 volts. The readings were made between the anode and ground through a resistance.

The diagram of the electrical circuit employed is shown in FIG. 14.

The model to be studied was subjected to a tensile load.

The polarizer was rotated by increments of from 0 to 200. The position 0 being any position with respect to the axes of the model. For each position of the polarizer, the reading of the AC voltmeter V was noted. The value of V,, the reading on the DC voltmeter, was maintained constant by means of a rheostat. The results of these measurements are listed below in Table II and are also shown in FIG. 15.

On FIG. 15, it will be seen that the curve is perfectly symmetrical with respect to inclinations, relative to the 0 position of the polarizer, of 465, 96.4 and l46.6. The axes of the birefringent models are thus inclined with respect to the 0 position of the polarizer by an angle of 465 at about 0. 1.

In FIG. 14, there has been shown the electrical circuit of the electron photomultiplier C of FIG. 13. As will be seen, the cathode of the electron photomultiplier is connected to a regulated high-voltage source HTS fed, for example, from the electrical mains through a voltage regulator ST. At the output of the electron photomultiplier a resistance R is connected to ground in parallel with V and V FIG. illustrates the way in which the r.m.s. value of the alternating voltage varies with the rotation of the polarizer.

Since this curve is perfectly symmetrical, it is not necessary to trace the entire curve to find the axes. It is sufficient to choose the r.m.s. value of the output voltage located in the zone of maximum sensitivity and to look for the position ofthe polarizer which gives the same value for the r.m.s. voltage.

In the interval from 0 to 200 for an AC voltage taken equal to 75mV., we find angles of 15.2", 772, 1l5.9 and l77.2. By taking the average of these values two by two, we obtain for the axes of the birefringent plate and for the bisector line thereof, the value 462, 96.2 and l46.55. It is noted that the position of the axes is determined very rapidly with a precision of about 02.

It will also be noted that these measurements were made with a polarizer whose graduation scale did not comprise a sliding-gauge. Each reading, therefore, could only be taken to an accuracy of about 02.

The method, therefore. obtains the position of the axes ofa birefringent plate with an error of at most 0. 1. This precision is far better than that which can be obtained by the prior art method using isocline lines.

The phase angle has also been measured, by the method indicated above, for incremental loads. The results of these measurements are given in Table III below and in FIG. 15a.

It will be seen from this figure that the points are almost perfectly placed on a straight line with deviation of less than 1, corresponding to about l/400 of fringe interference of light. This error may in part result from TABLE III Measure Gradua- Measure for tion of the 1' 1 dynamomp, 0=0 4 zp, eter kg/mm. (mV) (mV) [Cos degrees the system which was used to apply the load to the model.

One may also note that the well known Tardy method, currently used in photoelasticity, does not permit the measurement of the phase angle to an accuracy of much more than I /I0O ofa fringe.

In the representative curve of FIG. 15a it will be noticed that one point is well separated (by about 3) from the straight line. This point corresponds to a phase angle of 'rr/2, for which it will be necessary to find a null value from the r.m.s. value of the voltage.

For the value ='n-/2, the light flux received by the electron photomultiplier is no longer modulated. Furthermore, for a continuous flux, the presence of spurious signals of a certain amplitude has been noted on an oscilloscope. These spurious effects disappear as soon as the flux is slightly modulated.

An inspection of the graphical representation of Table II will show that this error becomes nil for nearby points corresponding to the phase angles of 82 and 97. It is therefore only for points very close to that the readings are subject to error caused by noise. This error of 3 percent corresponds to l/ th ofa fringe which is 4 percent in relative value. For a phase angle of 31r/2, the absolute error would still remain l/l00th of a fringe, thus giving only a relative error of 1 percent.

As described above, the voltage read on the DC voltmeter is held constant by means of a rheostat. Measurement is made on the AC voltmeter of the r.m.s. value of the voltage V, for various orientations of the polarizer P. As described previously, the orientation at of the axes with respect to a reference direction is such that for two symmetrical positions of the polarizer with respect to the reference direction, the r.m.s..

value of the voltage V is the same. One can also obtain the cosine of the phase angle by finding the ratio of the minimum and maximum values of the alternating voltage.

min.

It is possible therefore to measure experimentally in every point of a model the orientation :1 of the axes and the phase angle 1 Let N and N be the two main stresses in a point M with the convention 4 in algebraic value. Let a be the angle of .\i with the reference direction. for example (see FIG. 16).

5X OT Da 6Z1 or aY EE Oy (b) It is known that:

The angles I and a being known experimentally, the value of T will be known in every point of the model, as well as its derivatives with respect To 1: and y. T is measured in the same unit as 1 From the first equilibrium equation given above, there is obtained by integration along a line parallel to Mx, the perpendicular stress X.

The second equilibrium equation permits, by integration along a parallel to My, the determination of the perpendicular stress Y.

On the other hand, in each point it is easy to compute Y knowing Xor X knowing Y, since:

It is therefore possible theoretically to determine at every point ofa model, the value ofx and I. It is therefore very easy to determine the values of N and N since Experimental Methods for Determining the Stresses There will now be derived the values of a and D, at the corners of squares formed by lines drawn parallel to the axes Ox and 0y, as shown in FIG. 17. It should be noted that this method of measurements permits the determination of the orientation of the s t ress e s to an accuracy of only 11/2. The exact value of tFhlX N, may be found by continuous extrapolation from the side of the model where the stresses are known.

One point of this set of squared lines may be defined by means of two indices. for example Mi where k represents a column andj a row. as shown in FIG. 17.

If the distances between the row and columns are sufficiently small, the equations (a) and (b) may be written in the form of finite differences for example for point M Knowing .r equation (c) gives 9, 1' and knowing y j equation (d) gives y The perpendicular stresses can therefore be determined in every point. It merely suffices to know their values in any one point. This will generally be the case at the start for any point of a contour.

From the values ofX and Y at this point, it is possible to find the stresses at every other point, the path of integration being an absolutely arbitrary path.

The equations (c) and (d) may be written as follows from the experimental values obtained:

To these equations it is necessary to add the following The right-hand side of the equations (e), (f) and (g) are derived from the experimental values.

The equations (e), (f) and (g) constitute, therefore, a systemof linear equations to be solved.

As the solution of the equations (e), (j), and (g) is relatively time consuming, it is preferable in practice to use an appropriately programmed general purpose electronic com puter.

Example By way of example, the determination of the orientation of the axes and of the phase angle of a model comprising a thick annulus of methyl polymethacrylate subjected to tensile stress has been made. The inside diameter of the annulus is 65 mm. and the outside diameter is mm. In this case, the squared lines of FIG. 17 would be spaced by 5 mm.

The experimental results are given on FIG. 18. The values for a and 1 at the edges of the material have been obtained by extrapolation.

By way of example, integration has been made by starting from point A (FIG. 18) which is a singular point where N, .-'\'-.=X= \i=0 and the value of the stresses in point B has been looked for (N,=0, N =67) by passing through the following points:

The computation leads to the following values:

N =-0.28 degrees instead of 0 degrees N 67 .28 degrees instead of 67 degrees It is therefore seen that the experimental results are quite close to the computed values.

These values determined for a and I have been made under nonperfect conditions since the system for controlling and regulating the DC voltage hereinafter described, was not used. The measurements, therefore, could not be obtained to an accuracy much better than about 0.5". There was, nevertheless, a good coincidence with the experimental values of the direct measurement of the stresses.

It will be seen that with a suitable step for the integration with respect to the gradient of variations of a and of I the process according to the present invention leads to excellent results.

In order to use the method of scattered light with a nonpolarized impinging light beam, in three-dimension photoelastic measurement, it has been necessary to make a complete theoretical study of the action of a plurality of birefringent elements upon a light vibration.

On the basis of this theoretical study, it has been possible to evolve a new method for determining the axes and the phase shift of a birefringent element. This new method is both quick and precise.

The light energy transmitted by scattering is very small, being proportional to the energy received by the scattering particles. It is therefore necessary to increase to a maximum the illumination of the point to be studied in the model, account being taken of the physical properties of the scattered light. First, some of these properties will be discussed and then their influence upon the measurements of the orientation and of the phase angle of the opening and the thickness of the light 15 a beam illuminating the point will be considered in the model. An illustrative optical device used in the measurements and the results obtained on a model subjected to compressive stresses will then be described.

Physical Properties ofScattered Light wherein C is independent of a.

The vibration Z perpendicular to GM, located in the plane xOz has an amplitude The scattered light in any direction is therefore only partially polarized. Only the light scattered in a direction perpendicular to the impinging beam is totally polarized, since then and a cos 01%).

The vibrations Yand Z are noncoherent.

On the other hand, it is obvious that for a given scattering volume, the flux scattered in a direction will vary directly with the impinging flux.

However, with a light source of given intensity, it is not possible to increase the impinging flux except by increasing the opening of the beam illuminating the scattering volume.

Influence of the Opening and of the Thickness of the Light Beam lnfluence of the opening of the light beam.

The above-described process, assumed that the model was illuminated by a beam of parallel light. The light scattered in the direction of observation, was therefore assumed to be totally polarized. If new the model is illuminated by a beam of converging light, the light scattered in the direction of observation is only partially polarized. It is therefore necessary to study the influence of the state of partial polarization upon the principles for measuring the orientation of the axes and of the phase angle, described above.

Let us suppose a birefringent model having ox and Oy for axes receives partially polarized light. The vibrations of this light may be resolved into two perpendicular noncoherent vibrations, X and Y, having for intensities A and a At the output of the rotating analyzer, the vibration X with intensity A, will give rise to a modulated energy i an:

wherein 7 is the flattening coeflicient of the ellipse of light due to the vibration Y, and B is the angle of the axes of this ellipse with respect to the axes Ox and y.

cos Milt-1 2)] The plane according to the above-mentioned Poincare representation permits the immediate deduction that the two perpendicular vibrations will rise to two ellipses having the same flattening coefficient and whose axes are displaced by 7T/2- Therefore:

and

7| I 2Bi+ Hence:

:A lll-lcos 2( tBi)] 1+T12 e'=at[1 cos QUE-13 1+1'1 Let:

2 E-l-e=A+ m) The R.M.S. voltage read on the AC voltmeter is therefore proportional to principles of this invention, there only remains to be examined the case of scattered light wherein the divergence of the light beam renders the quantity A a a maximum.

Let 0 be the point studied in the model observed from a direction Oy,

Let d be the divergence of a light cone the axis of which is Oz and the solid angle of which is Q=2rr1cosa0), at the point of illumination 0. The energy received at point 0 is proportional to the solid angle 0..

Let us consider a light ray inside this cone (FIG. 21) defined by the angles a and 9 as well as the solid angle d0. defined by Let Ou be the intersection of the plane containing the impinging wave and the plane xOy. Let 0v be the direction of the plane of the wave perpendicular to Cu.

The vibrations of the impinging light may be resolved into two noncoherent vibrations along the axes Cu and 0v, the intensities of which are:

Let us look for the state of polarization of the light scattered at point 0 in the direction Oy.

Let x and z be the components of the vibration scattered along the directions Ox and Oz perpendicular to 0y. The equations below then apply, namely:

14,, v,, 14,, and v being the components of the vibrations u and v along the directions Ox and Oy.

The following equations also apply:

v =l""sin adfl in which I' =KF, k being the scattering coefficient.

Hence:

1 1 [em (1 co 6 -.=in 91 19 2 :1 sin adQ Let us consider now the whole of the cone of opening a the components along Ox and Oz of the scattered vibration have intensities A and a such that:

r s J; 1' cos 01 cos 9+Sl11 sin a-da-dt? mil-cos 0 Let us now determine the value of the angle a which maximizes the quantity Aa.

Now:

Let

This quantity is maximum for the value 2sina cosa sin a =O.

Let:

tan a Thus:

Influence ofthe thickness ofthe light beam. (FIG. 22)

Let us note first of all that the law of images in geometrical optics gives the equation:

in which n and n' are the refraction indices of the object and image spaces, ds and ds are the dimensions of the object and image spots, d9 and d0 are the solid angles in the space object and in the space image.

Therefore, for a given light source ofknown dimensions and known intensity, a reduction of d5 is obtained by increasing d0. This is important since is Represents the thickness of the beam limiting before and after displacement of the birefringent element under study inside the model. The process described above comprises in determining the orientation 9, and the phase angle of the birefringent blade placed in front of the plate for which the orientations 9 and 6 and the phase angles 1 and b defined by this birefringent plate are known.

Let us suppose now that 9 9 It is known in fact that ifall the elements constituting the birefringent element D 9 have different axes, when the load is varied, 9 varies whereas 9, remains constant. It is therefore possible by varying the load to attempt to obtain 9 9 thus involving obviously 6 9,. One may ascertain this fact by moving the light beam in the thickness of the birefringent element defined by 1 9,.

Let us locate the light beam tangentially to the birefringent element D 6; and let 2?) be the phase angle coi'respondint o the thickness of the light beam. Let be the phase angle of the assembly comprising the small birefringent element 1 and the birefringent element 1 6 One may assume that the energy E of the beam is concentrated in 2n+l planes numbered from n to +n, thus cutting the beam into 2n equal slices.

Let us look for the value of the phase angle measured Experimentally.

The light concentrated over the plane k traverses a birefringent element whose angle is k being located between -n and +n.

Let us assume that cos does not change its sign when k varies from n to +n. The phase angles measured will be the weighted sum of the phase angles corresponding to the various planes. Let

Let us associate, two at a time, the planes +k and k:

1 M 1 m COS COS P 2 cos (1 +3 Thus, there is obtained when n increases to infinity:

52 cos I =cos t [l 52 cos I =eos 1 [1+- To determine the characteristics of a plate, one must therefore successively place the middle of the light beam on each one of the faces of the plate, the model having been stressed appropriately so that 9 6,.

Afterwards, it is possible to correct the value of the measured phase angle if the width of the light beam is known, that is to say, by knowing an approximate value of 8.

Description of an Illustrative Device In the nonlimitating illustrative embodiment of the present invention, the light source S is a mercury vapor lamp OSRAM type HBO W. The source was chosen due to its small dimensions (interelectrode distance 0.25 mm.) and its very strong luminance 170,000 stilbs).

The lenses L, and L form an image of the light source on the diaphragm D, which passes only the luminous spot formed by the arc and eliminates the image of the glass bulb. Diaphragm D is placed at the focus oflens L The intensity of the light traversing iris diaphragm D can be controlled by adjusting the diaphragm.

The light is then reflected by a totally reflecting prism P, which is used in preference to a mirror in order to avoid polarization by reflection.

The lens L forms an image of the light source on the point of the model M to be studied. The model is placed in a tank which is filled with a liquid having the same index of refraction as the model.

The scattered light is observed in the direction perpendicular to the axis YY ofthe impinging light beam. The wall ofthe reservoir through which passes the scattered light must be perfectly free from the phenomenon of birefringence.

Two holes T and T, define the observation axis. The scattered light traverses an interferential filter, a rotating analyzer A and enters into the electron photomultiplier C.

The displacement of the impinging light beam is obtained by displacing along the axis X')( the assembly prism P and lens The model may be rotated about the observation axis RR, and this is, in effect, rotating the direction ofthe main stresses with respect to the direction ofpolarization.

Finally, for passing from the point being studied to another point, the model may be moved, on the one hand, along the axis YY and, on the other hand, along the axis Z'Z perpendicular to the plane ofthe drawing.

Experimental Results Experimentswere made on samples having dimensions of 30X30l20 mm., subjected to various degrees of compression.

These experiments were made as follows:

For a given load, the model was rotated about the observation axis. This had the same efiect as varying the orientation of the stresses with respect to the direction of polarization, which is fixed. For each position of the model. the r.m.s. value of the voltage read on the AC voltmeter was noted and. as has been seen previously. this voltage is proportional to where:

1- is the coefficient of flattening of the ellipse of light at the output of the model,

9 is an angle made by the direction of polarization with one of the axes of the birefringent element and,

4 is the phase angle of the birefringent element.

The absorption varying during this rotation, the total light flux emitted by scattering and measured on the DC voltmeter must be kept constant. It is for this purpose that use is made of the iris diaphragm mentioned above. It has been ascertained that the variation thus obtained in the opening 01 of the impinging beam has practically no influence on the proportion of polarized light. In effect, the angle 01,; is in fact very small (about 3). A computation from the above relations leads to:

y being the amount of polarized light.

The experiments were performed on a model made of methyl polymethacrylate photoelastic.

The scattering coefficient for the substance tested is small. For substances having larger scattering coefficients it will be necessary to employ electronic device of higher quality in order to diminish the influence of the background noise of the electron photomultiplier on the measurement of the r.m.s. value of the output voltage.

To improve the signal-to-noise ratio, a vacuum tube selective filter tuned at twice the rotation frequency ofthe analyzer is placed before the AC voltmeter. This filter has a double advantage:

It eliminates a large part of the background noise at the input to the AC voltmeter since the latter is proportional to the r.m.s. of the band-pass;

It acts as a signal amplifier.

It is unnecessary to use an interferential filter due to the fact that the maximum of scattering as well as the maximum sensitivity of the electron photomultiplier both occur in the blue part of the spectrum.

FIG. 24 shows the variation of the r.m.s. AC voltage (-and at the end ofthe line insert) which is proportional to as a function of the orientation of the model. This curve is perfectly symmetrical and shows that the axes of the birefringent element correspond exactly to the position 9=O.

The axes of the birefringent element thus having been determined, a study was made ofthe variation ofthe phase angle, as a function of the load, according to the process described above.

The results are shown on FIG. 25. The experimental points diverge froma straight line at a maximum of 2, that is 1/200 of a fringe, thus yielding a very high degree of precision on the variation of the phase angle as a function of the load. Two points which diverge most from the straight line are located on either side of the value I =l00.

The precision may be further improved by:

Use of a more stable power source,

Precisely controlling the frequency of rotation of the analyzer and precisely centering the selective filter on double this frequency, in order to be able to employ a narrow band-pass optical filter.

Use of known means for decreasing the background noise of the electron photomultiplier.

The material used for making the model must have a rather small photoelasticity sensitivity. It must be very pure and transparent. A small coefficient of scattering is not an impermissible condition since a high degree of transparency permits the use of models having large dimensions.

In this invention, measurements are of the same order of magnitude as in the prior art. However, in order to reduce the duration of these measurements means are employed to keep the r.m.s. value of the modulated current at the output of the electron photomultiplier. The value of the DC voltage is proportional to this r.m.s. value.

It has been seen above that for determining the direction of the stresses in a model under load, it merely suffices to measure the different alternating currents at the output of the electron photomultiplier, as a function of the orientation of the incident vibration, with the DC voltage being kept constant.

Although a manually adjusted rheostat can beusecl to keep the DC voltage constant, it is advantageous to employ automatic regulation of the DC voltage, thereby eliminating voltage fluctuations having as their origin either a lowering or an increase in the intensity of the mercury vapor light source, or

resulting from variations in the absorption path of the light beam.

Description of the Electronic Controlling System The diagram of the elements of the device is shown in FIG. 26.

The controlling feedback system shown in FIG. 26 comprises a light source such as an arc lamp LA, the light beam of which is directed onto an optical system SOAV whose absorption is variable. At the output the light beam impinges on the cathode of an electron photomultiplier PM. the average potential at the output of the electron photomultiplier (or part of this potential) is compared to a constant but adjustable reference potential TR. These two voltages are applied to a differential amplifier AD, the output of which is limited by limiters L and the applied to a power amplifier AP controlling the light source LA.

Use of this control scheme raises two further problems:

One problem is that the voltage delivered by the electron photomultiplier comprises both an AC voltage and of a DC voltage, the ratio of the amplitudes of which can vary from 0 to 1. It is therefore necessary to adjust the DC voltage without affecting this ratio.

A second problem is that it is necessary to provide an output for measuring the AC voltage and also to introduce voltage limiters in the loop in order not to switch-off or overload light 

1. A photoelasticity-measuring apparatus comprising a supporting frame, nonpolarized light source means, a first optical system mounted onto said supporting frame and containing said light source means, said optical system focusing said nonpolarized light from said source means onto a predetermined point along a lighting axis, supporting means mounted onto said frame being adjustable in three mutually perpendicular directions for supporting a three-dimensional photoelastic model so as to expose predetermined points of said model to said image of said source means, controlling means for rotating said model about an observation axis perpendicular to said lighting axis and forming a a horizontal plane with said lighting axis, said two axes intersecting at said predetermined point of said model, a constantly rotating analyzer centrally located about said observation axis, a photomultiplier positioned along said observation axis, a second optical system mounted onto said supporting frame and containing said analyzer and said photomultiplier and electronic circuit means for separating and simultaneously measuring the DC and AC components of the voltage output of said photomultiplier.
 2. A device as set forth in claim 1 wherein said electronic circuit means contains a servomechanism system for maintaining said DC voltage component constant, comprising a constant voltage reference, a differential amplifier, voltages limiters, and a power amplifier, said constant voltage applied to said differential amplifier together with said DC voltage component, and the output of said differential amplifier controlling the gain of said photomultiplier through said voltage limiters and said power amplifier.
 3. A device as set forth in claim 1 further including a tank in which said photoelastic model is placed, said tank and a liquid filling said tank having substantially the same index of refraction as that of said model.
 4. An apparatus for measuring the mechanical stresses in any point of a three-dimensional light-transparent model, comprising a controlled and stabilized source of nonpolarized light, an optical system focusing a sharp image of said source onto a selected point of said model, means for adjusting the position of said model in space such that said sharp image can be focused onto a number of points within said model, two diaphragms which define an observation axis along which there is provided a constantly rotating analyzer for use with elliptically polarized waves, the polarized light scattered by said point passing through said two diaphragms; a photomultiplier adapted to receive said scattered light after it has traversed said analyzer, electronic means for measuring the magnitude of the AC voltage output from said photomultiplier, whereby the position of the axis and their bisectors as well as the flattening of the ellipse of polarized light coming from the birefringence of said point can be determined and computing means for deriving from said determined values, by mathematical formulas, the mechanical stress at said point.
 5. A method for measuring the ratio of the long and short axes (flattening) of the ellipse of polarized light in any point of a flat, two-dimensional model of polarizing material using an optical system, an analyzer, a photomultiplier and a measuring system, comprising the steps of: a. focusing an image of nonpolarized light source means onto a predetermined point of said flat model along an optical axis by means of said optical system; b. constantly rotating said analyzer about an observation axis perpendicular to said optical axis; c. positioning said photomultiplier along said observation axis to receive the output of said analyzer; d. measuring the R.M.S. of the AC current output from the photomultiplier wherein the maximum and minimum values correspond to the positions of the axis and the minimum value with respect to the normalized maximum value is a function of the flattening of the ellipse of polarized light in the direction of the observation axis; and e. repeating the process after displacing the model along the observation axis by a distance dx, the two measurements permitting the determination of the thickness dx of the birefringent, which is perpendicular to the axis of observation.
 6. A method as described in claim 5 further including the steps of: a. repeating the measuring procedure for three mutually perpendicular and closely related positions of said model thereby forming a small volume within said model; and b. computing by known mathematical equations from the results of said measurements, the directions of the main stresses existing in the said volume, as well as the differences of the main stresses. 